Sun Tzǔ said: The art of war recognizes nine varieties of ground: (1) Dispersive ground; (2) facile ground; (3) contentious ground; (4) open ground; (5) ground of intersecting highways; (6) serious ground; (7) difficult ground; (8) hemmed-in ground; (9) desperate ground.

When a chieftain is fighting in his own territory, it is dispersive ground.569

When he has penetrated into hostile territory, but to no great distance, it is facile ground.570

Ground the possession of which imports great advantage to either side, is contentious ground.571

Ground on which each side has liberty of movement is open ground.572

Ground which forms the key to three contiguous states,573 so that he who occupies it first has most of the Empire at his command,574 is a ground of intersecting highways.575

When an army has penetrated into the heart of a hostile country, leaving a number of fortified cities in its rear,576 it is serious ground.577

Mountain forests,578 rugged steeps, marshes and fens⁠—all country that is hard to traverse: this is difficult ground.579

Ground which is reached through narrow gorges, and from which we can only retire by tortuous paths, so that a small number of the enemy would suffice to crush a large body of our men: this is hemmed in ground.

Ground on which we can only be saved from destruction by fighting without delay, is desperate ground.580

On dispersive ground, therefore, fight not. On facile ground, halt not. On contentious ground, attack not.581

On open ground, do not try to block the enemy’s way.582 On the ground of intersecting highways, join hands with your allies.583

On serious ground, gather in plunder.584 In difficult ground, keep steadily on the march.585

On hemmed-in ground, resort to stratagem.586 On desperate ground, fight.587

Those who were called skilful leaders of old588 knew how to drive a wedge between the enemy’s front and rear;589 to prevent cooperation between his large and small divisions; to hinder the good troops from rescuing the bad,590 the officers from rallying their men.591

When the enemy’s men were scattered, they prevented them from concentrating;592 even when their forces were united, they managed to keep them in disorder.593

When it was to their advantage, they made a forward move; when otherwise, they stopped still.594

If asked how to cope with a great host of the enemy in orderly array and on the point of marching to the attack,595 I should say: “Begin by seizing something which your opponent holds dear; then he will be amenable to your will.”596

Rapidity is the essence of war:597 take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness, make your way by unexpected routes, and attack unguarded spots.

The following are the principles to be observed by an invading force: The further you penetrate into a country, the greater will be the solidarity of your troops, and thus the defenders will not prevail against you.

Make forays in fertile country in order to supply your army with food.598

Carefully study the well-being of your men,599 and do not overtax them. Concentrate your energy and hoard your strength.600 Keep your army continually on the move,601 and devise unfathomable plans.602

Throw your soldiers into positions whence there is no escape, and they will prefer death to flight.603 If they will face death, there is nothing they may not achieve.604 Officers and men alike will put forth their uttermost strength.605

Soldiers when in desperate straits lose the sense of fear. If there is no place of refuge, they will stand firm. If they are in hostile country, they will show a stubborn front.606 If there is no help for it, they will fight hard.

Thus, without waiting to be marshaled, the soldiers will be constantly on the qui vive;607 without waiting to be asked, they will do your will;608 without restrictions, they will be faithful;609 without giving orders, they can be trusted.610

Prohibit the taking of omens, and do away with superstitious doubts.611 Then, until death itself comes, no calamity need be feared.612

If our soldiers are not overburdened with money, it is not because they have a distaste for riches; if their lives are not unduly long, it is not because they are disinclined to longevity.613

On the day they are ordered out to battle, your soldiers may weep,614 those sitting up bedewing their garments, and those lying down letting the tears run down their cheeks.615 But let them once be brought to bay, and they will display the courage of a Chu or a Kuei.616

The skilful tactician may be likened to the shuai-jan. Now the shuai-jan is a snake that is found in the Chʽang mountains.617 Strike at its head, and you will be attacked by its tail; strike at its tail, and you will be attacked by its head; strike at its middle,618 and you will be attacked by head and tail both.

Asked if an army can be made to imitate the shuai-jan,619 I should answer, Yes. For the men of Wu and the men of Yüeh are enemies;620 yet if they are crossing a river in the same boat and are caught by a storm, they will come to each other’s assistance just as the left hand helps the right.621

Hence it is not enough to put one’s trust in the tethering of horses,622 and the burying of chariot wheels in the ground.623

The principle on which to manage an army is to set up one standard of courage which all must reach.624

How to make the best of both strong and weak⁠—that is a question involving the proper use of ground.625

Thus the skilful general conducts his army just as though he were leading a single man, willy-nilly, by the hand.626

It is the business of a general to be quiet and thus ensure secrecy; upright and just, and thus maintain order.627

He must be able to mystify his officers and men by false reports and appearances,628 and thus keep them in total ignorance.629

By altering his arrangements and changing his plans,630 he keeps the enemy without definite knowledge.631 By shifting his camp and taking circuitous routes, he prevents the enemy from anticipating his purpose.632

At the critical moment, the leader of an army acts like one who has climbed up a height and then kicks away the ladder behind him.633 He carries his men deep into hostile territory before he shows his hand.634

He burns his boats and breaks his cooking-pots;635 like a shepherd driving a flock of sheep, he drives his men this way and that, and none knows whither he is going.636

To muster his host and bring it into danger:⁠—this may be termed the business of the general.637

The different measures suited to the nine varieties of ground;638 the expediency of aggressive or defensive tactics;639 and the fundamental laws of human nature: these are things that must most certainly be studied.

When invading hostile territory, the general principle is, that penetrating deeply brings cohesion; penetrating but a short way means dispersion.640

When you leave your own country behind, and take your army across neighborhood territory,641 you find yourself on critical ground.642 When there are means of communication643 on all four sides, the ground is one of intersecting highways.644

When you penetrate deeply into a country, it is serious ground. When you penetrate but a little way, it is facile ground.

When you have the enemy’s strongholds on your rear,645 and narrow passes in front, it is hemmed-in ground. When there is no place of refuge at all, it is desperate ground.

Therefore, on dispersive ground, I would inspire my men with unity of purpose.646 On facile ground, I would see that there is close connection between all parts of my army.647

On contentious ground, I would hurry up my rear.648

On open ground, I would keep a vigilant eye on my defences.649 On ground of intersecting highways, I would consolidate my alliances.650

On serious ground, I would try to ensure a continuous stream of supplies.651 On difficult ground, I would keep pushing on along the road.652

On hemmed-in ground, I would block any way of retreat.653 On desperate ground, I would proclaim to my soldiers the hopelessness of saving their lives.654

For it is the soldier’s disposition to offer an obstinate resistance when surrounded, to fight hard when he cannot help himself, and to obey promptly when he has fallen into danger.655

We cannot enter into alliance with neighboring princes until we are acquainted with their designs. We are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we are familiar with the face of the country⁠—its mountains and forests, its pitfalls and precipices, its marshes and swamps. We shall be unable to turn natural advantages to account unless we make use of local guides.656

To be ignorant of any one of the following four or five principles657 does not befit a warlike prince.658

When a warlike prince attacks a powerful state, his generalship shows itself in preventing the concentration of the enemy’s forces. He overawes his opponents,659 and their allies are prevented from joining against him.660

Hence he does not strive661 to ally himself with all and sundry,662 nor does he foster the power of other states. He carries out his own secret designs,663 keeping his antagonists in awe.664 Thus he is able to capture their cities and overthrow their kingdoms.665

Bestow rewards without regard to rule,666 issue orders667 without regard to previous arrangements;668 and you will be able to handle a whole army669 as though you had to do with but a single man.670

Confront your soldiers with the deed itself; never let them know your design.671 When the outlook is bright, bring it before their eyes; but tell them nothing when the situation is gloomy.

Place your army in deadly peril, and it will survive; plunge it into desperate straits, and it will come off in safety.672

For it is precisely when a force has fallen into harm’s way that is capable of striking a blow for victory.673

Success in warfare is gained by carefully accommodating ourselves to the enemy’s purpose.674

By persistently hanging on the enemy’s flank,675 we shall succeed in the long run676 in killing the commander-in-chief.677

This is called ability to accomplish a thing by sheer cunning.678

On the day that you take up your command,679 block the frontier passes,680 destroy the official tallies,681 and stop the passage of all emissaries.682

Be stern in the council-chamber,683 so that you may control the situation.684

If the enemy leaves a door open, you must rush in.685

Forestall your opponent by seizing what he holds dear,686 and subtly contrive to time his arrival on the ground.687

Walk in the path defined by rule,688 and accommodate yourself to the enemy until you can fight a decisive battle.689

At first, then, exhibit the coyness of a maiden, until the enemy gives you an opening; afterwards emulate the rapidity of a running hare, and it will be too late for the enemy to oppose you.690